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Ship Management : Tuesday 3rd October 16.00 - 17.30 David Patraiko - The Nautical Institute |
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Seafarers and Computers - Are there risks? By David J Patraiko, BSc, MBA, MNI ,Project Manager - The Nautical Institute
Introduction There can be no doubt that computers aboard ships are here to stay. The Nautical Institute and other organisations have conducted research which reflects this, but all you have to do is to ask you surveyors how many vessels they visit without them. Computers on board ships today can take many forms. They can consist of a single stand-alone PC on the bridge or in the "Old Man’s" office, or can be, and increasingly are, a Local Area Network (LAN) consisting of many machines linked through a server by fibre optic cabling. These LAN’s can then be linked through satellite communication to the shipping companies system to create a Wide Area Network (WAN) thus giving a vessel the capacity of communicating as efficiently as any land based office in the world. Computers on board vessels are used to control and monitor engineering, navigation and cargo systems, are used for management and administration such as inventory control, planned maintenance, accountancy, procedural documentation and for a myriad of communication tasks. Computers on board merchant vessels are not that different to those in your offices, they need to be maintained. They need to be protected from lost data, viruses, hackers and just plain ignorant yahoos. The operating systems need to be stable, software applications kept up-to-date and fit for purpose, compatible and licensed. So, who looks after all this sophisticated hardware and software? Who onboard is trained for these tasks, is there an IT officer? The answer of course is NO. Can the average watch-standing officer with an STCW certificate of competency be expected to walk on a modern vessel and manage these systems? The answer is — again no. Can shipping companies manage their IT systems and seastaff to insure safe and efficient operation? The answer is Yes. Do ship managers have a duty to train, over-and-above the levels of STCW certificates issued by a Flag Administration? Are they libel if they don’t? The answer is — for the courts to decide. But this is a risk. The inability of a seafarer to competently operate an onboard IT system is certainly an identifiable risk, that may have financial consequences due to a casualty (possibly insured against), but there are other risks as well, primarily the risk to a business of inefficiency. Commercial incentives to train There are major commercial benefits to be gained from having computer-literate seafarers on board a vessel with computers, they include; the ability to manage commercial risks, the use of computers as an effective management tool, more efficient fault diagnosis and improved morale and self-confidence. Managing commercial risks: Accident investigators and insurers are now developing a growing awareness as to the effect that poorly operated IT applications play in casualties and incidents. It has been suggested, particularly in cases involving cargo contamination (liquid), the miscalculation of stability and stress, and the failure of cargo lashings (inside and independent of containers) that a fundamental inability to effectively use computer-based applications has contributed to commercial losses. Ships and shipboard systems are becoming more complex, and computer applications are being use to push operational limits ever further. Computer application to monitor and control these applications are therefore relied on to a greater extent. Many tankers use IT applications exclusively to calculate stability and stress and to monitor and manipulate loading and discharge operations, sophisticated programs have also been developed to assess lashing requirements for container vessels with larger and heavier stacks. To effectively use and operate these systems seafarers are required to have both an understanding of computers in general and specific training in the particular application. Failure to train for these systems can lead to commercial loss and may result in claims for negligence. Another source of IT related commercial risk is in the maintenance and operation of the on board system itself. Proper training can reduce risks associated with using standard applications, bespoke applications or administrative applications such as MS Explorer, or the Registry Editor. The management (or mismanagement) of backups, virus protection, privileges and security operations can also pose risks with considerable commercial consequences. Computers as management tools: Computers are used in business and on board ship to assist with management tasks. One method for this to happen is to design specific bespoke software that crews interact with in a pre-established process. An example of this might be a program which allows the entering names and dates into a payroll program, that then calculates wages, prints the desired cheque and logs the transaction. This is the most common use of a computer, it is effective and requires minimal training due to the lack of decision-making tasks for the operator. For a ship’s officer to voluntarily use the functions of a computer to assist him in solving a problem or to streamline an operation requires a more theoretical level of training. An example of this might be a chief engineer who logs events or readings in a speadsheet in order to plot performance anomalies that might otherwise go undetected, a medical officer who, rather than just typing the medical inventory as a standard text document, uses date fields for expiration dates, in order to sort by dates to reveal when a drug has expired or needs replacing. The seemingly simple art of using a word processor is not always what it seems. Most self-taught seafarers can produce letters and reports, but how efficiently and professionally? A common problem is that most self-taught people do not know what facilities are available and tend to use a computer as an electronic typewriter. Huge amounts of time have been needlessly wasted because users were not aware that pages and bullet points can be automatically numbered, standard letters or forms can be saved as templates or realising the potential of mail merge for correspondence. In today’s world where masters are expected to be business managers with no secretarial support, the ability to use a word processor efficiently can save a great deal of time and money. In recognition of the importance of this, The Nautical Institute has produced a publication dedicated to ‘Written Communications for Business’(1992). Many companies are now seeking ways of increasing commercial advantage and are finding that computers used on board as a management tool, and the ability to create and edit complicated documents, such as shipyard specifications, particularly when used in conjunction with e-mail communication have more than justified training programmes. Fault diagnosis: When using computers it is inevitable that something at sometime will go wrong, this may be very minor or possibly a major fault. How these problems are dealt with can have clear economic ramifications. A seafarer trained to the level adequate with his tasks and responsibilities (discussed later) will have the ability to a) recognise a minor fault and correct it, b) recognise a fault beyond his ability and know where and how to get assistance, and c) be far more effective while working with others to correct the problem. In this latter activity, the trained seafarer will be able to discuss the problem intelligently and work effectively using his skills to complement a knowledge-based technical support system or shore-based technical assistance. Basic knowledge and skills will, for example, assist a seafarer to use diagnostic tools, isolate a problem, reboot computers, re-install applications or replace a terminal or server. Morale and Self-Confidence: The effect of self-confidence on seafarers in their ability to use computers onboard cannot be underestimated. A seafarer not confident in his ability to manage a computer will, at best, be confined to using it in the most minimal way possible and, at worse, be frightened to use it and become frustrated and fatigued. This is most often seen in senior officers who may, due to personal or cultural traits, be reluctant to seek advice especially from junior personnel who might be more familiar with the equipment. Failure to train officers or crew to use the technology required will have an adverse effect on morale which can, in turn, further reduce productivity. There has also been some evidence that the use of and training for IT systems by seafarers offers additional job satisfaction and career enrichment needed to recruit and retain high quality crews. Regulatory considerations Commercial arguments for training aside, is there a legal or regulatory requirement for training seafarers to use computers? Computer literacy is not directly addressed in the IMO’s STCW95 Convention or ISM Code, but there are ramifications that need to be addressed. Voluntary codes of good management such the ISO standard, or the ISMA Code also need to be interpreted as training for competence is implicit in quality management. A more detailed examination of how the ISM and STCW95 regulations can be interpreted are contained in annex I and II. What can a ship operator do? Ship owners/operators are in a position to know precisely the hardware, software and tasks their seafarers will be working with onboard. Most will also benefit from knowing the training levels of at least the officers onboard. The task is then to ensure hardware and software are fit for purpose and assess the seafarers ability to manage and operate the IT systems to a competent level. Provide training, if needed, to raise the seafarers ability to accomplish their tasks in an effective and efficient manner, or simplify the systems to match the level of competence. Types of training There are various types of training and no one type will suit all applications or all seafarers. The important thing is to assess the need for training at a required level of competence and to match a programme of training to meet this need. We will examine assessment later in the paper, but before we do let us have a look at some different options for imparting computer skills, their strengths and weaknesses. Instructor-led training: Instructor-led training is popular and can be very effective if, like all training it is planned well. Research indicates that for computer applications instructor-led training also has limitations. Instruction carried out on board needs to be carefully planned. Onboard training while a vessel is in port runs the risk of disrupting a crew who are trying to turn a vessel around in a short time and contending with the myriad of tasks such as cargo transfer duties, crew changes, port administration to name a few. Attempting to train in such an environment, if not managed properly can be very ineffective due to distractions. Training at sea may be more effective due to reduced distractions, but may prohibitive in terms of cost and scheduling feasibility. If an opportunity does, however present itself for instruction at sea, the advantages are that the actual equipment and software that the seafarer will be required to operate can be used and, that the instruction will be in the real environment using actual scenarios, that the cost of travel (for the seafarers) is removed, and that assessment of competence is more accurate. The seafarer will also stand a better chance of knowledge retention in this environment. Where it is possible to consult the crew themselves, and offer a choice of training options, the crew benefit from increased retention and a feeling of greater participation in the decision making process. Instructor-lead training ashore brings the benefit that job distractions are limited, and greater attention can be given by the seafarer to the task at hand, however there are costs incurred for travel, subsistence and often wages. It is also a recognised fact that this type of training suffers from lack of retention. It is estimated that after a month’s time only 30% of knowledge is retained. If this time period coincides with a seafarers time on leave (or holiday) the percentage can be even greater. A further consideration with instructor-led training is the ratio of students to instructor. In a purpose built computer training laboratory, where each student has his own terminal and the instructor’s terminal is projected for all to see, class sizes approaching or exceeding twenty are thought to lose effectiveness. On board ship, or ashore where an instructor is leading multiple students sharing a terminal, more than two students to a terminal is, again, thought to be ineffective. Video-Based Training: Video-based training is another option that can be used on board for standard or bespoke applications. Advantages with this method are that the training modules can be customised for specific applications and that the lessons can be shared with an audience. The disadvantage is that videos need to be updated in line with software changes. Although video-based training has been use effectively on board ship for general training, using video for computer training does have limitations. It is not interactive and it can be difficult to translate what is learned whilst watching a video to skills, when sitting down in front of a computer at a later time. If this medium is used it should be used in conjunction with a workbook that provides reference and allows for note-taking. Computer Based Training: On board computer-based training can be very effective and cost efficient and deserves to be looked at as a serious option. Computer Based Training (CBT) is actually a very broad concept and perhaps the name is a little misleading. To be pedantic, CBT can be used for many things, education, training, reference, review and assessment. It can take many forms including CD-Rom, Internet-based, and use simulation or virtual reality and can be interfaced with using the traditional mouse and keypad, touch-screen or voice command. With minimal introduction, CBT can be used to teach the most basic skills such as keyboard and mouse usage, right through to the most advanced levels. CBT should, however, be well-designed and interactive. Comprehensive details on recommended design parameters can be found in The Nautical Institute’s Guidelines for the Development of CBT for onboard Applications (November 2000). Advantages of using (well-designed) CBT for IT training onboard include:
Many modern standard applications come with CBT pre-installed in the form of tutorials and help wizards. CBT can also be customised to represent specific bespoke systems as well as fleet-specific processes. These can also be developed into troubleshooting aids for fleet-specific systems. CBT alone is not, however, a panacea and should be implemented as part of a holistic training programme, possibly incorporating one or more of the other techniques discussed. Books and paper-based systems: The use of manuals for training and on board reference is probably the most common method. They. Unfortunately poor quality software books and manuals are easy to produce and sell. This is further exasperated by the fact that most people tend not to read the manual before attempting to operate software packages, and they generally make poor reference material when something goes wrong. The reasons for this can be debated, but include the lack of ability to interact and simulate the actual program. Manuals may not be as flashy as other options, but they do not require power, are available on demand and can be read in the comfort of a lounge or cabin. Good manuals should be indexed, logically laid out, written in plain language and illustrated as much as possible. Reducing the Need for Training This paper has looked at the need for training, and examined, generically, the level of training required for various ship board tasks. An assessment of specific required training would be based on the tasks required to be preformed by the seafarer. Logically, if the tasks are reduced or simplified, the need for training will be reduced. In this section we will look at how to reduce the tasks and limit training while maintaining or even increasing the effectiveness of on board systems. To reduce the skill level of a specific task there are two options, remove the task or simplify the task. This applies to on board computer systems in that a ship using intuitive applications and remote or automated administration will require less-specific training. Software vendors to indicate that operation of their application is easy to use and therefore does not require training or requires minimal training often use the term "intuitive". The concept of intuition is an interesting one, intuition can be defined as the ability to perceive and understand things instinctively. When applied to ship board applications, software needs to be intuitive to the seafarer not the developer. Attention should also be given to the entire system when assessing training needs of those on board. A system that uses very intuitive applications may have an operating system such as Windows NT which, if a problem arises, is not intuitive (to the average seafarer at least). Systems intuitive to seafarers also reflect tasks that they are already familiar with. Software, such as a program designed to assist the master in administering personnel, for example, will be far more effective if it is based on a system he is already familiar with both in the use of forms and processes. Designing software that is familiar to seafarers is not always practical or desirable (particularly when developing new systems or standardising systems throughout a fleet) but the issue should be addressed when assessing the training implications. Intuitiveness is also a reflection of the capacity of the program and how close it follows existing skills. For example, a program used for celestial navigation calculations, which closely follows standard calculations that a watch officer is used to, would not need the level of training that a GMDSS terminal which could include communication theory not normally used by a such an officer, might. It is also important to understand the difference between computer skill and management skills. When implementing a new computer-based stock control or planned maintenance system onboard where such systems haven’t existed before, the training emphasis may need to be on the management task rather than on IT. Software companies who provide management systems point out that problems with computer based management systems are often not IT or computer based, but are rooted in the lack of management theory or culture supportive of a management task such as stock control. Interaction or communication between applications needs to be addressed when assessing the need for training. Many ships now have systems that require applications to communicate with each other, such as a database application that generates letters or reports using a wordprocessor and then sends them to a messaging application which then transmits the reports via satellite. If these applications have been designed to interface automatically so as not to involve the seafarer they will reduce the training implications (as long as nothing goes wrong). However, a system that does require intervention, such as a messaging application that requires a seafarer to understand the hierarchical system of drives and folders in order to attach specific files, does require a certain level of skill. The most difficult IT task a seafarer must attend to is usually on board system administration. Whether the vessel has a single stand-alone computer or a fully integrated network, high level administration tasks or troubleshooting represents a skill level which few seafarers currently possess. One problem in this area is that the skills are needed so infrequently, that even if a seafarer were trained, in say network administration, he might soon forget the knowledge through lack of practice. Many shipping companies have spent much time addressing this issue of system welfare. One company has achieved some success by attaching a start-up CD to the side of the computer, and in case something goes seriously wrong, the machine can rebooted, all the applications can be reinstalled afresh from the CD and other files can be reinstalled from the daily backup. Many companies are using remote maintenance, such as ‘Norton PC Anywhere from Symantec’. If the on board system is connected to a communications link, such as cellular or satellite phone, it is possible for a shore-side technician to dial up and log-on to the on board system and manipulate it as if he were on board himself. This can be used both in times of trouble and for routine maintenance. It has saved many companies time and money, and reduces the advanced level of training otherwise required of on board personnel. Redundancy has been used by many shipping applications, particularly with Dynamic Positioning (DP) applications where double or triple redundancy is required for critical systems. Redundancy can be used in other non-safety critical systems to reduce the need for high level skills. Having twin servers in a network will allow one to fail without rendering a system dysfunctional, and having a spare stand-alone terminal with applications already installed can save time and skills as well. What can The Nautical Institute do? Ship owners/managers have the ability to assess the needs of seafarers working on their vessels and if need be, augment training as necessary. However, there are, reportedly, many administrations that still do not include or require any IT training in their programmes for STCW certification. The chances of a watch officer entering the world labour pool and being employed on a vessel without computers on board are increasingly slim. The Nautical Institute, with funding provided by Trinity House and co-operation from many sectors of the industry are planning to raise the awareness of the need and benefits of efficient and effective use of onboard IT systems. A publication will soon be published by The Nautical Institute and posted free on the Internet to highlight the issues, provide guidance on training levels and training programmes. Conclusion Merchant ships today are increasingly being provided and relying on IT systems for both safety critical and managerial operations. Vessels at sea operate in a remote environment, making service and support by technicians more costly than that of shore side operations. Seafarers thus need a greater ability to manage and maintain these onboard systems to provide effective and efficient commercial operations. A shipping company also has a responsibility and therefore liability under regulations such as the ISM Code and the STCW95 Convention to ensue that risks are identified, training is provided and that seafarers are competent. Failure can be construed as negligence. The Nautical Institute is working to raise the awareness of these issues and support the industry through educational resources. Annex I International Safety Management (ISM) The Nautical Institute has asked Captain John Corse, FNI, Director of Ferriby Marine to examine the ISM Code in relation to the need for IT training for seafarers. He writes: ********************** With every year that passes there is an ever increasing trend towards the fitting of more electronic equipment on board ships. The electronic component of much of this equipment is designed to further the automation of ship-board functions in order to reduce the size of crews which means that it must be reliable and easily understood. Great advances in reliability have certainly been obvious in recent times but especially where there is integration of these functions and the sharing of information between different pieces of equipment, the complexity of this electronic wizardry has meant that it is all to often anything but simple to understand. For example on the navigating bridge the Officer of the Watch has to contend with GPS, ARPA, ECDIS charts, GMDSS, Loading / Stress and Stability computerized programmes, Integrated Navigation Systems and in the Engine Room there are sophisticated engine control and machinery scanning systems, data loggers and planned maintenance systems to grasp. The degree of sophistication varies greatly from company to company and ship to ship and may be part of the reason why there is not a global or even concerted approach to this problem of ensuring that personnel are properly instructed in the use of such apparatus. Whilst there are currently no figures available to show how many accidents are related to the lack of training or comprehension of this ever growing list of equipment, there have been some significant examples such as the "Royal Majesty" The introduction of the International Safety Management Code high-lights areas of concern regarding the lack of IT training. Whilst the ISM Code does not specifically refer to computers and IT equipment, it never the less draws attention to aspects of safe operation which have to be complied with irrespective of how the information, measurement or result is obtained. At the very beginning of the Preamble to the Code, it states very clearly, "The purpose of the Code is to provide an international standard for the safe management and operation of ships and for pollution prevention". Whatever methods of operation are utilized to achieve those ends, "safety" must be paramount. However, it is all too common to find that ships have been fitted either originally or as a retro-fit with equipment for which the seaman has not received any training whatsoever. Or he has been instructed by a fellow officer who has only limited knowledge, some of which may in fact be incorrect. Or members of the crew originally appointed to the vessel were given some instruction but it was not passed on to subsequent crew members. In 1.4.2 the Code states that every company should develop and implement a Safety Management System (SMS) which contains instructions and procedures to ensure safe operation of ships and protect the environment in compliance with relevant international and flag state legislation. This is further supported by clause 3.3 which requires that adequate resources and shore based support are provided to enable the designated person(s) to carry out their function. Again in clauses 6.3 and 6.5 which deal specifically with familiarization and training respectively, it is stressed that unless people are properly trained and conversant with the equipment they have to operate, they will fail to do their job properly, damage the equipment and possibly put the vessel and crew in danger. In clause 7 it is necessary to develop appropriate plans for shipboard operations and in clause 10 it requires that adequate maintenance be carried out and that it is fully recorded with special regard to critical functions. Both of these requirements tend these days to be controlled electronically as is the documentation referred to in clause 12. In the early sixties following the Andea Doria/Stockholm collision it was determined that those who operated radar should be properly trained in evaluating the information it provided to the watch-keeper. Since then legislation to ensure adequate training for the correct use of ARPA and GMDSS has followed but there are so many other items that confront the seaman of today. In conducting ISM assessments and audits in many parts of the world, I often come across a marked disregard or understanding of the need to ensure that all personnel who have to operate computers and other electronic equipment are given the necessary training and familiarization to ensure a reasonable degree of competency. This has resulted in a non-conformance being raised but with frequent changes of personnel on board ships it recurs all to often. This is principally a management problem and one that is growing ever larger by the year. Do we have to wait for an accident with serious loss of life before the problem is properly resolved. Annex II STCW 95 Convention: Mr. Ian Giddings, FNI, Training and Education Manager for The Nautical Institute, looks at IT training requirements inherent in IMO’s STCW95 Convention: ****************** The International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978, as amended in 1995 and the Seafarers’ Training, Certification and Watchkeeping Code make no specific mention of information technology training. These two documents focus upon the competencies together with the associate knowledge and understanding which a seafarer is required to demonstrate. It is possible to achieve these and to carry out one’s duties on board without the need for information technology. However in this day and age this is rarely the case and so the seafarers do require training in information technology to be fully competent particularly at management level. In the standard of competence for Masters and Chief Mates there is the function of controlling the operation of the ship and care for the persons on board at the management level. Within this function there is the specific competence organize and manage the crew, which requires a knowledge of personnel management, organization and training on board ship. Today’s vessel owners supply computer programmes to monitor and record such activities thus the seafarers require training in their general operation, if it is a Windows-based programme say or in their specific operation if it is a specially designed programme. Of course much of this could be eliminated if the programmes were made intuitive but that rarely happens. This then percolates throughout the system with various competencies having an implication that information technology may be used in this area and so there is a need to have a level of competence in information technology. Can one really envisage, on a modern well-equipped vessel, the Master doing correspondence without it or the Chief Engineer handling stores without it? Information technology may not be written into STCW in black and white but it is there and if it is there the people need training. |